Theorizing Teaching: Current Status and Open Issues

This open access book seeks to create a forum for discussing key questions regarding theories on teaching: Which theories of teaching do we have? What are their attributes? What do they contain? How are they generated? How context-sensitive and content-specific do they need to be? Is it possible or even desirable to develop a comprehensive theory of teaching? The book identifies areas of convergence and divergence among the answers to these questions by prominent international scholars in research on teaching. Initiating exchanges among the authors, it then evaluates whether consensus can be reached on the areas of divergence. The book concludes by discussing lessons learned from this endeavor and outlines steps that need to be taken for advancing future work on theorizing teaching. As such, the book is aimed at readers interested in an overview of the theorizing of teaching and key open questions that, if addressed, help to move the field forward.

Intro -- Foreword -- References -- Preface -- Contents -- Chapter 1: Where Are We on Theorizing Teaching? A Literature Overview -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Identifying Publications on Theories of Teaching -- 3 The Importance of Theories of Teaching -- 4 Theory: Definition and Related Concepts -- 5 Attributes of a Theory of Teaching -- 6 The Process of and Difficulties in Generating Theories of Teaching -- 7 The (Non-)Existence of Theories of Teaching -- 7.1 Theory References in the Handbook Chapters -- 7.2 Theory References in Journal Articles -- 7.3 Dealing with the Existing Diversity -- 8 Aims, Scope, and Structure of the Book -- 9 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 2: Creating Practical Theories of Teaching -- 1 Creating Practical Theories of Teaching -- 2 Moving Beyond a Simple Model of Teaching -- 3 An Alternative Model of Teaching -- 3.1 Unpacking the Model -- 3.2 An Advantage of the Model for Teachers (and Researchers) -- 3.3 Limitations of the Model -- 4 Building and Using Theories of Creating Sustained Learning Opportunities -- 4.1 A Sample Hypothesis in a Theory of Creating Sustained Learning Opportunities -- 4.2 Imagining the Work of Building Theories of Creating Sustained Learning Opportunities -- 5 Conclusions -- 6 Our Answers to the Editors' Questions for the Authors -- 6.1 What Is a Theory (of Teaching)? -- 6.2 Can Such a Theory Accommodate Differences Across Subject Matters and Student Populations Taught? If So, How? If Not, Why? -- 6.3 Do We Already Have a Theory/Theories on Teaching? If So, Which Are They? -- 6.4 In the Future, in What Ways Might It Be Possible, If at All, to Create a (More Comprehensive) Theory of Teaching? -- References -- Chapter 3: Teaching Effectiveness Revisited Through the Lens of Practice Theories -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Foundations and Limitations of TER -- 2.1 Criticisms Against TER.

3 The Theory of Three Basic Dimensions of Teaching Quality -- 3.1 The Structural Part of TBD: Identifying Basic Dimensions of Teaching Quality -- 3.2 The Process Part of TBD: Explaining So-Called "Student Outcomes" -- 4 Teaching Effectiveness Beyond Claims of Unidirectional Causal Impact: The Concept of Opportunity and Use -- 5 Perspectives from the Paradigm of "Practice Theories" -- 6 Reflecting TBD from the Background of Practice Theories -- 6.1 Associations Between Teaching Dimensions and So-Called "Student Outcomes" Reinterpreted from a Practice-Theoretical Perspective -- 6.2 The Sequentiality of Classroom Interactions and Implications for the Observation of Teaching Dimensions -- 7 Conclusion-With a Response to the Questions Guiding This Book -- 8 Final Note -- References -- Chapter 4: Theory on Teaching Effectiveness at Meta, General and Partial Level -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Terminology -- 3 Meta-Theory. A Systems Model on the Functioning of Education as the Underlying Structure of an Educational Effectiveness Research Paradigm and Its Practical Implications -- 3.1 A Model Representing the Educational Effectiveness Research Paradigm -- 3.2 Scientific and Applied Use of the Framework -- 4 Substantive Building Blocks for a General Theory on Teaching Effectiveness -- 4.1 Introduction -- 4.2 A Closer Look at Classroom Level Teaching -- 4.3 Can Summary Categories of Variables Be Interpreted as Meaningful Dimensions for a General Theory on Teaching? -- 4.3.1 The Elementary Parts of Teaching: Matching of Content Elements, Psychological Operations, and Didactic Considerations -- 4.3.2 Pro-Active and Retro-Active Regulation in Teaching -- 4.3.3 Structure and Independence in Teaching -- 4.3.4 Classroom Management -- 4.4 The Theoretical Meaningfulness of the Dimensions.

5 Examples of Partial Substantive Theories of Teaching Effectiveness in the Domains of "Direct Teaching" and "Social Emotional Support" -- 5.1 Direct Instruction -- 5.2 Emotional Support in Teaching -- 6 Discussion -- References -- Chapter 5: Establishing a Comprehensive Theory of Teaching and Learning: The Contribution of the Dynamic Model of Educational Effectiveness -- 1 Educational Effectiveness Research: The Theoretical Development of the Field -- 2 The Dynamic Model of Educational Effectiveness -- 2.1 Main Elements and Rationale -- 2.2 Classroom-Level Factors in the Dynamic Model -- 3 Empirical Support Provided to the Main Assumptions of the Dynamic Model at the Classroom Level -- 3.1 The Impact of Teacher Factors on Student Learning Outcomes -- 3.2 Using a Multidimensional Approach to Measuring the Functioning of Teacher and School Factors -- 3.3 Searching for Relationships Among Teacher Factors: Establishing Stages of Effective Teaching -- 4 Establishing a Comprehensive Theoretical Framework That Can Be Used for Improvement Purposes -- References -- Chapter 6: A Theory of Teaching -- 1 Introduction and Overview -- 2 A Theory of In-The-Moment Decision Making -- 3 Establishing Goals for "Ambitious Teaching" (Key Dimensions of Productive Learning Environments) and Thinking About the Development of Orientations and Resources -- 3.1 Goals -- 3.1.1 Mathematics-Related Goals -- 3.1.2 Cognitive Demand-Related Goals -- 3.1.3 Equitable Access-Related Goals -- 3.1.4 Agency, Ownership, and Identity-Related Goals -- 3.1.5 Formative Assessment-Related Goals -- 3.2 Orientations -- 3.3 Resources -- 3.3.1 Mathematics-Related Resources -- 3.3.2 Cognitive Demand-Related Resources -- 3.3.3 Equitable Access-Related Resources -- 3.3.4 Agency, Ownership, and Identity-Related Resources -- 3.3.5 Formative Assessment-Related Resources -- 4 Summary and Next Steps.

4.1 What Is a Theory (of Teaching)? -- 4.2 What Should It Contain and Why? Do We Already Have a Theory/Theories on Teaching? If So, Which Are They? -- 4.3 Can Such a Theory Accommodate Differences Across Subject Matters and Student Populations Taught? If So, How? If Not, Why? -- 4.4 (From the Editors:) In the Future, In What Ways Might It Be Possible, If at All, to Create a (More Comprehensive) Theory of Teaching? -- 4.5 (Reframed:) In the Future, In What Ways Might It Be Possible, If at All, to Elaborate and Support the Mechanisms of Teaching for Robust Understanding, and to Understand the Impact of the Contexts Within Which Teaching Takes Place? -- 4.5.1 Research and Development on Resources for Teaching for Robust Understanding -- 4.5.2 Issues of Developmental Trajectories -- 4.5.3 Theoretical and Pragmatic Challenges in an Increasingly Virtual Instructional World -- 4.5.4 Broader Issues of Context -- References -- Chapter 7: Keeping Theorizing in Touch with Practice: Practical Rationality as a Middle Range Theory of Mathematics Teaching -- 1 Teaching as an Object of Study and Our Position as Researchers of Mathematics Teaching -- 2 Practical Rationality, Theorization, and Middle Range Theories -- 3 Practical Rationality as a Scientific Effort to Study the Work of Mathematics Teaching -- 3.1 Focusing on Institutionalized Mathematics Teaching -- 3.2 Instructional Exchanges, Instructional Situations, and Instructional Norms -- 3.3 Coordinating Individual and Socio-technical Factors to Understand Teacher Decision Making -- 3.4 One Reason to Create a Middle-Range Theory of Mathematics Teaching -- 4 Empirical Research on Situational Norms in Instruction -- 4.1 Virtual Breaching Experiments: Designing Studies of Instructional Norms -- 5 How the Analysis of Research Data Contributed to Theory Development.

5.1 Becoming Aware of Tensions Between Situational and Contractual Norms -- 5.2 Developing a More Precise Formulation of a Situational Norm: The Diagrammatic Register -- 5.3 After Detecting Breaches of Norms: Justifying Actions and the Professional Obligations -- 6 Theorizing by Connecting Practical Rationality Constructs to Those from Other Theories -- 6.1 Connecting Mathematical Knowledge for Teaching to Practical Rationality -- 6.2 Connecting Teachers' Beliefs to Practical Rationality -- 6.3 The Uses of Practical Rationality -- 7 Conclusion: Addressing the Questions Posed -- References -- Chapter 8: Theory for Teaching and Teaching for Theory: Artifacts as Tangible Entities for Storing and Improving Professional Knowledge for Teaching -- 1 What Is a Theory (of Teaching)? -- 2 A Two-Way Street: Theory for Teaching and Teaching for Theory -- 3 Components and Generality of a Theory of Teaching -- 3.1 Components of a Theory of Teaching -- 3.1.1 Learning Goals for Students -- 3.1.2 Instructional Tasks -- 3.1.3 Mathematical Discourse -- 3.2 Generality of a Theory of Teaching -- 4 Theories of Teaching: East Meets West -- 5 Artifacts That Embody and Bridge Theory for Teaching and Teaching for Theory -- 5.1 Teaching Cases in Chinese Mathematics Education -- 5.2 Features of Artifacts That Embody and Bridge Theory for Teaching and Teaching for Theory -- 6 Future Directions for Research: Spiralling Up the Two-Way Street -- References -- Chapter 9: Outline of a Theory of Teaching: What Teaching Is, What It Is For, How It Works, and Why It Requires Artistry -- 1 Introduction -- 2 Two Myths About Teaching -- 3 What Is Teaching? -- 3.1 Teaching as Attention Formation -- 3.2 Teaching as Occupation, Enterprise and Act -- 4 What Is Teaching For? -- 4.1 The Problems with 'Learning' -- 4.2 Teaching and the Purposes of Education -- 4.3 What should Teachers Aim for?.